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    Principles of neural science.

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    • Title:Principles of neural science.
    •    
    • Other Contributors/Collections:Kandel, Eric R.
    • Published/Created:New York : McGraw-Hill Medical, ©2013.

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    • Library of Congress Subjects:Neurophysiology.
      Neuropsychology.
    • Medical Subjects: Central Nervous System--physiology.
      Mental Processes--physiology.
      Nervous System Diseases.
      Neuropsychology.
    • Genre/Form:Textbooks.
    • Edition:5th ed. / edited by Eric R. Kandel ... [et al.] ; art editor, Sarah Mack.
    • Description:l, 1, 709 pages : illustrations (chiefly color) ; 29 cm
    • Summary:"The field's definitive work from a Nobel Prize-winning author 900 full-color illustrations Principles of Neural Science, 5e describes our current understanding of how the nerves, brain, and mind function. From molecules to anatomic structures and systems to cognitive function, this comprehensive reference covers all aspects of neuroscience. Widely regarded as the field's cornerstone reference, the fifth edition is highlighted by more than 900 full-color illustrations. The fifth edition has been completely updated to reflect the tremendous amount of new research and development in neuroscience in the last decade. Lead author Eric Kandel was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2000"--Provided by publisher.
    • Notes:Previous ed.: c2000.
      Machine generated contents note: PART I: Overall Perspective (Kandel, Hudspeth)1. The Brain and Behavior (Kandel, Hudspeth)2. Nerve Cells, Neural Circuitry, and Behavior (Kandel, Barres, Hudspeth)3. Genes and Behavior (Bargmann, Gilliam) PART II: Cell and Molecular Biology of the Neuron (Siegelbaum, Hudspeth)4. The Cells of the Nervous System (Schwartz, Barres, Goldman)5. Ion Channels (Siegelbaum, Koester)6. Membrane Potential and the Passive Electrical Properties of the Neuron (Siegelbaum, Koester)7. Propagated Signaling: The Action Potential (Siegelbaum, Koester) PART III: Overview: Synaptic Transmission (Siegelbaum, Hudspeth)8. Overview of Synaptic Transmission (Siegelbaum, Kandel)9Signaling at the Nerve Muscle Synapse: Directly Gated Transmission (Siegelbaum, Kandel)10. Synaptic Integration in the Central Nervous System (Siegelbaum, Kandel, Yuste)11. Modulation of Synaptic Transmission: Second Messengers (Clapham, Siegelbaum, Schwartz)12. Transmitter Release (Siegelbaum, Kandel, Sudhof)13. Neurotransmitters (Schwartz, Javitch)14. Diseases of Nerve and the Motor Unit (Brown, Cannon, Rowland) PART IV: The Neural Basis of Cognition (Hudspeth, Kandel)15. The Organization of the Central Nervous System (Amaral, Strick)16. The Functional Organization of Perception and Movement (Amaral)17. From Nerve Cells to Cognition: The Internal Representations for Space and Action (Kandel)18. The Organization of Cognition (Olson, Colby)19. Cognitive Functions of the Premotor System (Rizzolatti, Strick)20. Functional Imaging of Cognition (Small, Heeger) PART V: Perception (Hudspeth)21. Sensory Coding (Gardner, Johnson)22. The Somatosensory System: Receptors and Central Pathways (Gardner, Johnson)23. Touch (Gardner, Johnson)24. Pain (Basbaum, Jessell)25. The Constructive Nature of Visual Processing (Gilbert)26. Low-Level Visual Processing: The Retina (Meister, Tessier-Lavigne)27. Intermediate-Level Visual Processing: Visual Primitives (Gilbert)28. High-Level Visual Processing: Cognitive Influences (Albright)29. Visual Processing and Action (Wurtz, Goldberg)30. The Inner Ear (Hudspeth)31. The Auditory Central Nervous System (Oertel, Doupe)32. Smell and Taste: The Chemical Senses (Buck, Bargmann)PART VI: Movement (Hudspeth)33. The Organization and Planning of Movement (Wolpert, Pearson, Ghez)34. The Motor Unit and Muscle Action (Enoka, Pearson)35. Spinal Reflexes (Pearson, Gordon)36. Locomotion (Pearson, Gordon)37. Voluntary Movement: The Primary Motor Cortex (Kalaska, Rizzolatti)38. Voluntary Movement: The Parietal and Premotor Cortex (Rizzolatti, Kalaska)39. The Control of Gaze(Goldberg)40. The Vestibular System (Goldberg, Hudspeth)41. Posture (MacPherson, Horack)42. The Cerebellum (Lisberger, Thach)43. The Basal Ganglia (Wichmann, DeLong)44. Genetic Mechanisms in Degenerative Diseases of the Nervous System (Zoghbi)PART VII: The Unconscious and Conscious Processing of Neural Information (Kandel, Siegelbaum, Schwartz)45. The Sensory, Motor, and Reflex Functions of the Brain Stem (Saper, Lumsden, Richerson) 46. The Modulatory Functions of the Brain Stem (Richerson, Aston-Jones, Saper)47. The Autonomic Motor System and the Hypothalamus (Horn, Swanson)48. Emotions and Feelings (LeDoux, Damasio)49. Homeostasis, Motivation, and Addictive States (Shizgal, Hyman)50. Seizures and Epilepsy (Westbrook)51. Sleep and Dreaming (McCormick, Westbrook)PART VIII: Development and the Emergence of Behavior (Jessell)52. Patterning the Nervous System (Jessell, Sanes)53. Differentiation and Survival of Nerve Cells(Jessell, Sanes)54. The Growth and Guidance of Axons (Sanes, Jessell)55. Formation and Elimination of Synapses (Sanes, Jessell)56. Experience and the Refinement of Synaptic Connections (Jessell, Sanes)57. Repairing the Damaged Brain (Sanes, Jessell)58. Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System (Shah, Jessell, Sanes)59. The Aging Brain (Jessell, Sanes)PART IX: Language, Thought, Affect, and Learning (Kandel, Schwartz)60. Language (Kuhl, Damasio)61. Disorders of Conscious and Unconscious Mental Processes (C. Frith)62. Disorders of Thought and Volition: Schizophrenia (Hyman, Cohen)63. Disorders of Mood and Anxiety (Hyman, Cohen)64. Autism and Other Neurodevelopmental Disorders Affecting Cognition (U. Frith, Happe, Amaral, and Warren)65. Learning and Memory(Schacter, Wagner)66. Cellular Mechanisms of Implicit Memory Storage and the Biological Basis of Individuality (Kandel, Siegelbaum)67. Prefrontal Cortex, Hippocampus, and the Biology of Explicit Memory Storage)AppendicesA. Review of Basic Circuit Theory (Koester)B. The Neurological Examination of the Patient (Kriegstein, Brust)C. Circulation of the Brain (Brust)D. The Blood-Brain Barrier, Choroid Plexus, and Cerebrospinal Fluid (Laterra, Goldstein)E. Neural Networks (Seung, Yuste)F. Theoretical Approaches to Neuroscience: Examples From Single Neurons to Networks (Abbott, Fusi, Miller).
      Includes bibliographical references and index.
    • ISBN:9780071390118 (hard cover : alk. paper)
      0071390111 (hard cover : alk. paper)
    • Contents:Machine generated contents note: pt. I Overall Perspective
      1. Brain and Behavior / A. J. Hudspeth
      Two Opposing Views Have Been Advanced on the Relationship Between Brain and Behavior
      Brain Has Distinct Functional Regions
      First Strong Evidence for Localization of Cognitive Abilities Came from Studies of Language Disorders
      Affective States Are Also Mediated by Local, Specialized Systems in the Brain
      Mental Processes Are the End Product of the Interactions Between Elementary Processing Units in the Brain
      Selected Readings
      References
      2. Nerve Cells, Neural Circuitry, and Behavior / A. J. Hudspeth
      Nervous System Has Two Classes of Cells
      Nerve Cells Are the Signaling Units of the Nervous System
      Glial Cells Support Nerve Cells
      Each Nerve Cell Is Part of a Circuit That Has One or More Specific Behavioral Functions
      Signaling Is Organized in the Same Way in All Nerve Cells
      Input Component Produces Graded Local Signals
      Trigger Zone Makes the Decision to Generate an Action Potential
      Conductive Component Propagates an All-or-None Action Potential
      Output Component Releases Neurotransmitter
      Transformation of the Neural Signal from Sensory to Motor Is Illustrated by the Stretch-Reflex Pathway
      Nerve Cells Differ Most at the Molecular Level
      Neural Network Models Simulate the Brain's Parallel Processing of Information
      Neural Connections Can Be Modified by Experience
      Selected Readings
      References
      3. Genes and Behavior / T. Conrad Gilliam
      Genes, Genetic Analysis, and Heritability in Behavior
      Nature of the Gene
      Genes Are Arranged on Chromosomes
      Relationship Between Genotype and Phenotype
      Genes Are Conserved Through Evolution
      Role of Genes in Behavior Can Be Studied in Animal Models
      Circadian Rhythm Is Generated by a Transcriptional Oscillator in Flies, Mice, and Humans
      Natural Variation in a Protein Kinase Regulates Activity in Flies and Honeybees
      Social Behaviors of Several Species Are Regulated by Neuropeptide Receptors
      Genetic Studies of Human Behavior and Its Abnormalities
      Neurological Disorders in Humans Suggest That Distinct Genes Affect Different Brain Functions
      Autism-Related Disorders Exemplify the Complex Genetic Basis of Behavioral Traits
      Psychiatric Disorders and the Challenge of Understanding Multigenic Traits
      Complex Inheritance and Genetic Imprinting in Human Genetics
      Multigenic Traits: Many Rare Diseases or a Few-Common Variants?
      Overall View
      Glossary
      Selected Readings
      References
      pt. II Cell and Molecular Biology of the Neuron
      4. Cells of the Nervous System / James E. Goldman
      Neurons and Glia Share Many Structural and Molecular Characteristics
      Cytoskeleton Determines Cell Shape
      Protein Particles and Organelles Are Actively Transported Along the Axon and Dendrites
      Fast Axonal Transport Carries Membranous Organelles
      Slow Axonal Transport Carries Cytosolic Proteins and Elements of the Cytoskeleton
      Proteins Are Made in Neurons as in Other Secretory Cells
      Secretory and Membrane Proteins Are Synthesized and Modified in the Endoplasmic Reticulum
      Secretory Proteins Are Modified in the Golgi Complex
      Surface Membrane and Extracellular Substances Are Recycled in the Cell
      Glial Cells Play Diverse Roles in Neural Function
      Glia Form the Insulating Sheaths for Axons
      Astrocytes Support Synaptic Signaling
      Choroid Plexus and Ependymal Cells Produce Cerebrospinal Fluid
      Microglia in the Brain Are Derived from Bone Marrow
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      5. Ion Channels / John Koester
      Rapid Signaling in the Nervous System Depends on Ion Channels
      Ion Channels Are Proteins That Span the Cell Membrane
      Currents Through Single Ion Channels Can Be Recorded
      Ion Channels in All Cells Share Several Characteristics
      Flux of Ions Through a Channel Is Passive
      Opening and Closing of a Channel Involve Conformational Changes
      Structure of Ion Channels Is Inferred from Biophysical, Biochemical, and Molecular Biological Studies
      Ion Channels Can Be Grouped into Gene Families
      Closed and Open Structures of Potassium Channels Have Been Resolved by X-Ray Crystallography
      Structural Basis of Chloride Selectivity Reveals a Close Relation Between Ion Channels and Ion Transporters
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      6. Membrane Potential and the Passive Electrical Properties of the Neuron / Steven A. Siegelbaum
      Resting Membrane Potential Results from the Separation of Charge Across the Cell Membrane
      Resting Membrane Potential Is Determined by Nongated and Gated Ion Channels
      Open Channels in Glial Cells Are Permeable to Potassium Only
      Open Channels in Resting Nerve Cells Are Permeable to Several Ion Species
      Electrochemical Gradients of Sodium, Potassium, and Calcium Are Established by Active Transport of the Ions
      Chloride Ions Are Also Actively Transported
      Balance of Ion Fluxes That Maintains the Resting Membrane Potential Is Abolished During the Action Potential
      Contributions of Different Ions to the Resting Membrane Potential Can Be Quantified by the Goldman Equation
      Functional Properties of the Neuron Can Be Represented as an Electrical Equivalent Circuit
      Passive Electrical Properties of the Neuron Affect Electrical Signaling
      Membrane Capacitance Slows the Time Course of Electrical Signals
      Membrane and Axoplasmic Resistance Affect the Efficiency of Signal Conduction
      Large Axons Are More Easily Excited Than Small Axons
      Passive Membrane Properties and Axon Diameter Affect the Velocity of Action Potential Propagation
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      7. Propagated Signaling: The Action Potential / Steven A. Siegelbaum
      Action Potential Is Generated by the Flow of Ions Through Voltage-Gated Channels
      Sodium and Potassium Currents Through Voltage-Gated Channels Are Recorded with the Voltage Clamp
      Voltage-Gated Sodium and Potassium Conductances Are Calculated from Their Currents
      Action Potential Can Be Reconstructed from the Properties of Sodium and Potassium Channels
      Variations in the Properties of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels Expand the Signaling Capabilities of Neurons
      Nervous System Expresses a Rich Variety of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
      Gating of Voltage-Sensitive Ion Channels Can Be Influenced by Various Cytoplasmic Factors
      Excitability Properties Vary Between Regions of the Neuron
      Excitability Properties Vary Between Types of Neurons
      Mechanisms of Voltage-Gating and Ion Permeation Have Been Inferred from Electrophysiological Measurements
      Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels Open and Close in Response to Redistribution of Charges Within the Channel
      Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels Select for Sodium on the Basis of Size, Charge, and Energy of Hydration of the Ion
      Voltage-Gated Potassium, Sodium, and Calcium Channels Stem from a Common Ancestor and Have Similar Structures
      X-Ray Crystallographic Analysis of Voltage-Gated Channel Structures Provides Insight into Voltage-Gating
      Diversity of Voltage-Gated Channel Types Is Generated by Several Genetic Mechanisms
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      pt. III Synaptic Transmission
      8. Overview of Synaptic Transmission / Eric R. Kandel
      Synapses Are Either Electrical or Chemical
      Electrical Synapses Provide Instantaneous Signal Transmission
      Cells at an Electrical Synapse Are Connected by Gap-Junction Channels
      Electrical Transmission Allows the Rapid and Synchronous Firing of Interconnected Cells
      Gap Junctions Have a Role in Glial Function and Disease
      Chemical Synapses Can Amplify Signals
      Neurotransmitters Bind to Postsynaptic Receptors
      Postsynaptic Receptors Gate Ion Channels Either Directly or Indirectly
      Selected Readings
      References
      9. Signaling at the Nerve-Muscle Synapse: Directly Gated Transmission / Steven A. Siegelbaum
      Neuromuscular Junction Is a Well-Studied Example of Directly Gated Synaptic Transmission
      Motor Neuron Excites the Muscle by Opening Ligand-Gated Ion Channels at the End-Plate
      End-Plate Potential Is Produced by Ionic Current Through Acetylcholine Receptor-Channels
      Ion Channel at the End-Plate Is Permeable to Both Sodium and Potassium
      Current Through Single Acetylcholine Receptor-Channels Can Be Measured Using the Patch Clamp
      Individual Receptor-Channels Conduct All-or-None Unitary Currents
      Four Factors Determine the End-Plate Current
      Molecular Properties of the Acetylcholine Receptor-Channel Are Known
      Overall View
      Postscript: The End-Plate Current Can Be Calculated from an Equivalent Circuit
      Selected Readings
      References
      10. Synaptic Integration in the Central Nervous System / Rafael Yuste
      Central Neurons Receive Excitatory and Inhibitory Inputs
      Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses Have Distinctive Ultrastructures
      Excitatory Synaptic Transmission Is Mediated by Ionotropic Glutamate Receptor-Channels That Are Permeable to Sodium and Potassium
      Excitatory Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors Are Encoded by a Distinct Gene Family
      Glutamate Receptors Are Constructed from a Set of Modules
      NMDA and AMPA Receptors Are Organized by a Network of Proteins at the Postsynaptic Density
      Inhibitory Synaptic Action Is Usually Mediated by Ionotropic GABA and Glycine Receptor-Channels That Are Permeable to Chloride
      Currents Through Single GABA and Glycine Receptor-Channels Can Be Recorded
      Chloride Currents Through Inhibitory GABAA and Glycine Receptor-Channels Normally Inhibit the Postsynaptic Cell
      Contents note continued: Ionotropic Glutamate, GABA, and Glycine Receptors Are Transmembrane Proteins Encoded by Two Distinct Gene Families
      Ionotropic GABAA and Glycine Receptors Are Homologous to Nicotinic ACh Receptors
      Some Synaptic Actions Depend on Other Types of Ionotropic Receptors in the Central Nervous System
      Excitatory and Inhibitory Synaptic Actions Are Integrated by the Cell into a Single Output
      Synaptic Inputs Are Integrated to Fire an Action Potential at the Axon Initial Segment
      Dendrites Are Electrically Excitable Structures That Can Fire Action Potentials
      Synapses on a Central Neuron Are Grouped According to Physiological Function
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      11. Modulation of Synaptic Transmission: Second Messengers / James H. Schwartz
      Cyclic AMP Pathway Is the Best Understood Second-Messenger Signaling Cascade Initiated by G Protein-Coupled Receptors
      Second-Messenger Pathways Initiated by G Protein-Coupled Receptors Share a Common Molecular Logic
      Family of G Proteins Activates Distinct Second-Messenger Pathways
      Hydrolysis of Phospholipids by Phospholipase C Produces Two Important Second Messengers, IP3 and Diacylglycerol
      Hydrolysis of Phospholipids by Phospholipase A2 Liberates Arachidonic Acid to Produce Other Second Messengers
      Transcellular Messengers Are Important for Regulating Presynaptic Function
      Endocannabinoids Are Derived from Arachidonic Acid
      Gaseous Second Messengers, Nitric Oxide and Carbon Monoxide, Stimulate Cyclic GMP Synthesis
      Family of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Mediates Some Metabotropic Receptor Effects
      Physiological Actions of Ionotropic and Metabotropic Receptors Differ
      Second-Messenger Cascades Can Increase or Decrease the Opening of Many Types of Ion Channels
      G Proteins Can Modulate Ion Channels Directly
      Cyclic AMP-Dependent Protein Phosphorylation Can Close Potassium Channels
      Synaptic Actions Mediated by Phosphorylation Are Terminated by Phosphoprotein Phosphatases
      Second Messengers Can Endow Synaptic Transmission with Long-Lasting Consequences
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      12. Transmitter Release / Thomas C. Sudhof
      Transmitter Release Is Regulated by Depolarization of the Presynaptic Terminal
      Release Is Triggered by Calcium Influx
      Relation Between Presynaptic Calcium Concentration and Release
      Several Classes of Calcium Channels Mediate Transmitter Release
      Transmitter Is Released in Quantal Units
      Transmitter Is Stored and Released by Synaptic Vesicles
      Synaptic Vesicles Discharge Transmitter by Exocytosis and Are Recycled by Endocytosis
      Capacitance Measurements Provide Insight into the Kinetics of Exocytosis and Endocytosis
      Exocytosis Involves the Formation of a Temporary Fusion Pore
      Synaptic Vesicle Cycle Involves Several Steps
      Exocytosis of Synaptic Vesicles Relies on a Highly Conserved Protein Machinery
      Synapsins Are Important for Vesicle Restraint and Mobilization
      SNARE Proteins Catalyze Fusion of Vesicles with the Plasma Membrane
      Calcium Binding to Synaptotagmin Triggers Transmitter Release
      Fusion Machinery Is Embedded in a Conserved Protein Scaffold at the Active Zone
      Modulation of Transmitter Release Underlies Synaptic Plasticity
      Activity-Dependent Changes in Intracellular Free Calcium Can Produce Long-Lasting Changes in Release
      Axo-axonic Synapses on Presynaptic Terminals Regulate Transmitter Release
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      13. Neurotransmitters / Jonathan A. Javitch
      Chemical Messenger Must Meet Four Criteria to Be Considered a Neurotransmitter
      Only a Few Small-Molecule Substances Act as Transmitters
      Acetylcholine
      Biogenic Amine Transmitters
      Catecholamine Transmitters
      Serotonin
      Histamine
      Amino Acid Transmitters
      ATP and Adenosine
      Small-Molecule Transmitters Are Actively Taken Up into Vesicles
      Many Neuroactive Peptides Serve as Transmitters
      Peptides and Small-Molecule Transmitters Differ in Several Ways
      Peptides and Small-Molecule Transmitters Coexist and Can Be Co-released
      Removal of Transmitter from the Synaptic Cleft Terminates Synaptic Transmission
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      14. Diseases of the Nerve and Motor Unit / Lewis P. Rowland
      Disorders of the Peripheral Nerve, Neuromuscular Junction, and Muscle Can Be Distinguished Clinically
      Variety of Diseases Target Motor Neurons and Peripheral Nerves
      Motor Neuron Diseases Do Not Affect Sensory Neurons
      Diseases of Peripheral Nerves Affect Conduction of the Action Potential
      Molecular Bases of Some Inherited Peripheral Neuropathies Have Been Defined
      Diseases of the Neuromuscular Junction Have Multiple Causes
      Myasthenia Gravis Is the Best Studied Example of a Neuromuscular Junction Disease
      Treatment of Myasthenia Targets the Physiological Effects and Autoimmune Pathogenesis of the Disease
      There Are Two Distinct Congenital Forms of Myasthenia Gravis
      Lambert-Eaton Syndrome and Botulism Are Two Other Disorders of Neuromuscular Transmission
      Diseases of Skeletal Muscle Can Be Inherited or Acquired
      Dermatomyositis Exemplifies Acquired Myopathy
      Muscular Dystrophies Are the Most Common Inherited Myopathies
      Some Inherited Diseases of Skeletal Muscle Arise from Genetic Defects in Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
      Periodic Paralysis Is Associated with Altered Muscle Excitability and Abnormal Levels of Serum Potassium
      Overall View
      Postscript: Diagnosis of Motor Unit Disorders Is Aided by Laboratory Criteria
      Selected Readings
      References
      pt. IV Neural Basis of Cognition
      15. Organization of the Central Nervous System / Peter L. Strick
      Central Nervous System Consists of the Spinal Cord and the Brain
      Major Functional Systems Are Similarly Organized
      Information Is Transformed at Each Synaptic Relay
      Neurons at Each Synaptic Relay Are Organized into a Neural Map of the Body
      Each Functional System Is Hierarchically Organized
      Functional Systems on One Side of the Brain Control the Other Side of the Body
      Cerebral Cortex Is Concerned with Cognition
      Neurons in the Cerebral Cortex Are Organized in Layers and Columns
      Cerebral Cortex Has a Large Variety of Neurons
      Subcortical Regions of the Brain Are Functionally Organized into Nuclei
      Modulatory Systems in the Brain Influence Motivation, Emotion, and Memory
      Peripheral Nervous System Is Anatomically Distinct from the Central Nervous System
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      16. Functional Organization of Perception and Movement / David G. Amaral
      Sensory Information Processing Is Illustrated in the Somatosensory System
      Somatosensory Information from the Trunk and Limbs Is Conveyed to the Spinal Cord
      Primary Sensory Neurons of the Trunk and Limbs Are Clustered in the Dorsal Root Ganglia
      Central Axons of Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons Are Arranged to Produce a Map of the Body Surface
      Each Somatic Submodality Is Processed in a Distinct Subsystem from the Periphery to the Brain
      Thalamus Is an Essential Link Between Sensory Receptors and the Cerebral Cortex for All Modalities Except Olfaction
      Sensory Information Processing Culminates in the Cerebral Cortex
      Voluntary Movement Is Mediated by Direct Connections Between the Cortex and Spinal Cord
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      17. From Nerve Cells to Cognition: The Internal Representations of Space and Action / Eric R. Kandel
      Major Goal of Cognitive Neural Science Is to Understand Neural Representations of Mental Processes
      Brain Has an Orderly Representation of Personal Space
      Cortex Has a Map of the Sensory Receptive Surface for Each Sensory Modality
      Cortical Maps of the Body Are the Basis of Accurate Clinical Neurological Examinations
      Internal Representation of Personal Space Can Be Modified by Experience
      Extrapersonal Space Is Represented in the Posterior Parietal Association Cortex
      Much of Mental Processing Is Unconscious
      Is Consciousness Accessible to Neurobiological Analysis?
      Consciousness Poses Fundamental Problems for a Biological Theory of Mind
      Neurobiological Research on Cognitive Processes Does Not Depend on a Specific Theory of Consciousness
      Studies of Binocular Rivalry Have Identified Circuits That May Switch Unconscious to Conscious Visual Perception
      Selective Attention to Visual Stimuli Can Be Studied on the Cellular Level in Nonhuman Primates
      How Is Self-Awareness Encoded in the Brain?
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      18. Organization of Cognition / Carol L. Colby
      Functionally Related Areas of Cortex Lie Close Together
      Sensory Information Is Processed in the Cortex in Serial Pathways
      Parallel Pathways in Each Sensory Modality Lead to Dorsal and Ventral Association Areas
      Dorsal Visual Pathway Carries Spatial Information and Leads to Parietal Association Cortex
      Ventral Visual Pathway Processes Information About Form and Leads to Temporal Association Cortex
      Goal-Directed Motor Behavior Is Controlled in the Frontal Lobe
      Prefrontal Cortex Is Important for the Executive Control of Behavior
      Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Contributes to Cognitive Control of Behavior
      Orbital-Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex Contributes to Emotional Control of Behavior
      Limbic Association Cortex Is a Gateway to the Hippocampal Memory System
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      19. Cognitive Functions of the Premotor Systems / Peter L. Strick
      Contents note continued: Direct Connections Between the Cerebral Cortex and Spinal Cord Play a Fundamental Role in the Organization of Voluntary Movements
      Four Premotor Areas of the Primate Brain Also Have Direct Connections in the Spinal Cord
      Motor Circuits Involved in Voluntary Actions Are Organized to Achieve Specific Goals
      Hand Has a Critical Role in Primate Behavior
      Joint Activity of Neurons in the Parietal and Premotor Cortex Encodes Potential Motor Acts
      Some Neurons Encode the Possibilities for Interaction with an Object
      Mirror Neurons Respond to the Motor Actions of Others
      Potential Motor Acts Are Suppressed or Released by Motor Planning Centers
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      20. Functional Imaging of Cognition / David J. Heeger
      Functional Imaging Reflects the Metabolic Demand of Neural Activity
      Functional Imaging Emerged from Studies of Blood Flow
      Functional Imaging Reflects Energy Metabolism
      Functional Imaging Is Used to Probe Cognitive Processes
      Imaging Perception with and Without Consciousness
      Imaging Memory with and Without Consciousness
      Imaging Attentional Modulation of Conscious Perception
      Functional Imaging Has Limitations
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      pt. V Perception
      21. Sensory Coding / Kenneth O. Johnson
      Psychophysics Relates the Physical Properties of Stimuli to Sensations
      Psychophysical Laws Govern the Perception of Stimulus Intensity
      Psychophysical Measurements of Sensation Magnitude Employ Standardized Protocols
      Sensations Are Quantified Using Probabilistic Statistics
      Decision Times Are Correlated with Cognitive Processes
      Physical Stimuli Are Represented in the Nervous System by Means of the Sensory Code
      Sensory Receptors Are Responsive to a Single Type of Stimulus Energy
      Multiple Subclasses of Sensory Receptors Are Found in Each Sense Organ
      Neural Firing Patterns Transmit Sensory Information to the Brain
      Receptive Field of a Sensory Neuron Conveys Spatial Information
      Modality-Specific Pathways Extend to the Central Nervous System
      Receptor Surface Is Represented Topographically in Central Nuclei
      Feedback Regulates Sensory Coding
      Top-Down Learning Mechanisms Influence Sensory Processing
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      22. Somatosensory System: Receptors and Central Pathways / Kenneth O. Johnson
      Primary Sensory Neurons of the Somatosensory System Are Clustered in the Dorsal Root Ganglia
      Peripheral Somatosensory Nerve Fibers Conduct Action Potentials at Different Rates
      Many Specialized Receptors Are Employed by the Somatosensory System
      Mechanoreceptors Mediate Touch and Proprioception
      Proprioceptors Measure Muscle Activity and Joint Positions
      Nociceptors Mediate Pain
      Thermal Receptors Detect Changes in Skin Temperature
      Itch Is a Distinctive Cutaneous Sensation
      Visceral Sensations Represent the Status of Various Internal Organs
      Somatosensory Information Enters the Central Nervous System Through Cranial and Spinal Nerves
      Somatosensory Information Flows from the Spinal Cord to the Thalamus Through Parallel Pathways
      Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal System Relays Tactile and Proprioceptive Information
      Spinothalamic System Conveys Noxious, Thermal, and Visceral Information
      Thalamus Has a Number of Specialized Somatosensory Regions
      Ventral Posterior Nucleus Relays Tactile and Proprioceptive Information
      Noxious, Thermal, and Visceral Information Is Processed in Several Thalamic Nuclei
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      23. Touch / Kenneth O. Johnson
      Active and Passive Touch Evoke Similar Responses in Mechanoreceptors
      Hand Has Four Types of Mechanoreceptors
      Receptive Fields Define the Zone of Tactile Sensitivity
      Two-Point Discrimination Tests Measure Texture Perception
      Slowly Adapting Fibers Detect Object Pressure and Form
      Rapidly Adapting Fibers Detect Motion and Vibration
      Both Slowly and Rapidly Adapting Fibers Are Important for Grip Control
      Tactile Information Is Processed in the Central Touch System
      Cortical Receptive Fields Integrate Information from Neighboring Receptors
      Neurons in the Somatosensory Cortex Are Organized into Functionally Specialized Columns
      Cortical Columns Are Organized Somatotopically
      Touch Information Becomes Increasingly Abstract in Successive Central Synapses
      Cognitive Touch Is Mediated by Neurons in the Secondary Somatosensory Cortex
      Active Touch Engages Sensorimotor Circuits in the Posterior Parietal Cortex
      Lesions in Somatosensory Areas of the Brain Produce Specific Tactile Deficits
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      24. Pain / Thomas M. Jessell
      Noxious Insults Activate Nociceptors
      Signals from Nociceptors Are Conveyed to Neurons in the Dorsal Horn of the Spinal Cord
      Hyperalgesia Has Both Peripheral and Central Origins
      Nociceptive Information is Transmitted from the Spinal Cord to the Thalamus
      Five Major Ascending Pathways Convey Nociceptive Information
      Several Thalamic Nuclei Relay Nociceptive Information to She Cerebral Cortex
      Pain is Controlled by Cortical Mechanisms
      Cingulate and Insular Areas Are Active During the Perception of Pain
      Pain Perception Is Regulated by a Balance of Activity in Nociceptive and Non-Nociceptive Afferent Fibers
      Electrical Stimulation of the Brain Produces Analgesia
      Opioid Peptides Contribute to Endogenous Pain Control
      Endogenous Opioid Peptides and Their Receptors Are Distributed in Pain-Modulatory Systems
      Morphine Controls Pain by Activating Opioid Receptors
      Tolerance and Addiction to Opioids Are Distinct Phenomena
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      25. Constructive Nature of Visual Processing / Charles D. Gilbert
      Visual Perception Is a Constructive Process
      Visual Perception Is Mediated by the Geniculostriate Pathway
      Form, Color, Motion, and Depth Are Processed in Discrete Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
      Receptive Fields of Neurons at Successive Relays in an Afferent Pathway Provide Clues to How the Brain Analyzes Visual Form
      Visual Cortex Is Organized into Columns of Specialized Neurons
      Intrinsic Cortical Circuits Transform Neural Information
      Visual Information Is Represented by a Variety of Neural Codes
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      26. Low-Level Visual Processing: The Retina / Marc Tessier-Lavigne
      Photoreceptor Layer Samples the Visual Image
      Ocular Optics Limit the Quality of the Retinal Image
      There Are Two Types of Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
      Phototransduction Links the Absorption of a Photon to a Change in Membrane Conductance
      Light Activates Pigment Molecules in the Photoreceptors
      Excited Rhodopsin Activates a Phosphodiesterase Through the G Protein Transducin
      Multiple Mechanisms Shut Off the Cascade
      Defects in Phototransduction Cause Disease
      Ganglion Cells Transmit Neural Images to the Brain
      Two Major Types of Ganglion Cells Are ON Cells and OFF Cells
      Many Ganglion Cells Respond Strongly to Edges in the Image
      Output of Ganglion Cells Emphasizes Temporal Changes in Stimuli
      Retinal Output Emphasizes Moving Objects
      Several Ganglion Cell Types Project to the Brain Through Parallel Pathways
      Network of Interneurons Shapes the Retinal Output
      Parallel Pathways Originate in Bipolar Cells
      Spatial Filtering Is Accomplished by Lateral Inhibition
      Temporal Filtering Occurs in Synapses and Feedback Circuits
      Color Vision Begins in Cone-Selective Circuits
      Congenital Color Blindness Takes Several Forms
      Rod and Cone Circuits Merge in the Inner Retina
      Retina's Sensitivity Adapts to Changes in Illumination
      Light Adaptation Is Apparent in Retinal Processing and Visual Perception
      Multiple Gain Controls Occur Within the Retina
      Light Adaptation Alters Spatial Processing
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      27. Intermediate-Level Visual Processing and Visual Primitives / Charles D. Gilbert
      Internal Models of Object Geometry Help the Brain Analyze Shapes
      Depth Perception Helps Segregate Objects from Background
      Local Movement Cues Define Object Trajectory and Shape
      Context Determines the Perception of Visual Stimuli
      Brightness and Color Perception Depend on Context
      Receptive-Field Properties Depend on Context
      Cortical Connections, Functional Architecture, and Perception Are Intimately Related
      Perceptual Learning Requires Plasticity in Cortical Connections
      Visual Search Relies on the Cortical Representation of Visual Attributes and Shapes
      Cognitive Processes Influence Visual Perception
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      28. High-Level Visual Processing: Cognitive Influences / Thomas D. Albright
      High-Level Visual Processing Is Concerned with Object Identification
      Inferior Temporal Cortex Is the Primary Center for Object Perception
      Clinical Evidence Identifies the Inferior Temporal Cortex as Essential for Object Recognition
      Neurons in the Inferior Temporal Cortex Encode Complex Visual Stimuli
      Neurons in the Inferior Temporal Cortex Are Functionally Organized in Columns
      Inferior Temporal Cortex Is Part of a Network of Cortical Areas Involved in Object Recognition
      Object Recognition Relies on Perceptual Constancy
      Categorical Perception of Objects Simplifies Behavior
      Visual Memory Is a Component of High-Level Visual Processing
      Implicit Visual Learning Leads to Changes in the Selectivity of Neuronal Responses
      Contents note continued: Explicit Visual Learning Depends on Linkage of the Visual System and Declarative Memory Formation
      Associative Recall of Visual Memories Depends on Top-Down Activation of the Cortical Neurons That Process Visual Stimuli
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      29. Visual Processing and Action / Robert H. Wurtz
      Successive Fixations Focus Our Attention in the Visual Field
      Attention Selects Objects for Further Visual Examination
      Activity in the Parietal Lobe Correlates with Attention Paid to Objects
      Visual Scene Remains Stable Despite Continual Shifts in the Retinal Image
      Vision Lapses During Saccades
      Parietal Cortex Provides Visual Information to the Motor System
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      30. Inner Ear / A. J. Hudspeth
      Ear Has Three Functional Parts
      Hearing Commences with the Capture of Sound Energy by the Ear
      Hydrodynamic and Mechanical Apparatus of the Cochlea Delivers Mechanical Stimuli to the Receptor Cells
      Basilar Membrane Is a Mechanical Analyzer of Sound Frequency
      Organ of Corti Is the Site of Mechanoelectrical Transduction in the Cochlea
      Hair Cells Transform Mechanical Energy into Neural Signals
      Deflection of the Hair Bundle Initiates Mechanoelectrical Transduction
      Mechanical Force Directly Opens Transduction Channels
      Direct Mechanoelectrical Transduction Is Rapid
      Temporal Responsiveness of Hair Cells Determines Their Sensitivity
      Hair Cells Adapt to Sustained Stimulation
      Hair Cells Are Tuned to Specific Stimulus Frequencies
      Sound Energy Is Mechanically Amplified in the Cochlea
      Hair Cells Use Specialized Ribbon Synapses
      Auditory Information Flows Initially Through the Cochlear Nerve
      Bipolar Neurons in the Spiral Ganglion Innervate Cochlear Hair Cells
      Cochlear Nerve Fibers Encode Stimulus Frequency and Intensity
      Sensorineural Hearing Loss Is Common but Treatable
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      31. Auditory Central Nervous System / Allison J. Doupe
      Multiple Types of Information Are Present in Sounds
      Neural Representation of Sound Begins in the Cochlear Nuclei
      Cochlear Nerve Imposes a Tonotopic Organization on the Cochlear Nuclei and Distributes Acoustic Information into Parallel Pathways
      Ventral Cochlear Nucleus Extracts Information About the Temporal and Spectral Structure of Sounds
      Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus Integrates Acoustic with Somatosensory Information in Making Use of Spectral Cues for Localizing Sounds
      Superior Olivary Complex of Mammals Contains Separate Circuits for Detecting Interaural Time and Intensity Differences
      Medial Superior Olive Generates a Map of Interaural Time Differences
      Lateral Superior Olive Detects Interaural Intensity Differences
      Efferent Signals from the Superior Olivary Complex Provide Feedback to the Cochlea
      Brain Stem Pathways Converge in the Inferior Colliculus
      Sound Location Information from the Inferior Colliculus Creates a Spatial Map of Sound in the Superior Colliculus
      Midbrain Sound-Localization Pathways Are Sensitive to Experience in Early Life
      Inferior Colliculus Transmits Auditory Information to the Cerebral Cortex
      Auditory Cortex Maps Numerous Aspects of Sound
      Auditory Information Is Processed in Multiple Cortical Areas
      Insectivorous Bats Have Cortical Areas Specialized for Behaviorally Relevant Features of Sound
      Second Sound-Localization Pathway from the Inferior Colliculus Involves the Cerebral Cortex in Gaze Control
      Auditory Circuits in the Cerebral Cortex Are Segregated into Separate Processing Streams
      Cerebral Cortex Modulates Processing in Subcortical Auditory Areas
      Hearing Is Crucial for Vocal Learning and Production in Both Humans and Songbirds
      Normal Vocal Behavior Cannot Be Learned in Isolation
      Vocal Learning Is Optimal During a Sensitive Period
      Both Humans and Songbirds Possess Specialized Neural Networks for Vocalization
      Songbirds Have Feature Detectors for Learned Vocalizations
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      32. Smell and Taste: The Chemical Senses / Cornelia I. Bargmann
      Large Number of Olfactory Receptor Proteins Initiate the Sense of Smell
      Mammals Share a Large Family of Odorant Receptors
      Different Combinations of Receptors Encode Different Odorants
      Olfactory Information Is Transformed Along the Pathway to the Brain
      Odorants Are Encoded in the Nose by Dispersed Neurons
      Sensory Inputs in the Olfactory Bulb Are Arranged by Receptor Type
      Olfactory Bulb Transmits Information to the Olfactory Cortex
      Output from the Olfactory Cortex Reaches Higher Cortical and Limbic Areas
      Olfactory Acuity Varies in Humans
      Odors Elicit Characteristic Innate Behaviors
      Pheromones Are Detected in Two Olfactory Structures
      Invertebrate Olfactory Systems Can Be Used to Study Odor Coding and Behavior
      Anatomy of the Insect Olfactory System Resembles That of Vertebrates
      Olfactory Cues Elicit Stereotyped Behaviors and Physiological Responses in the Nematode
      Strategies for Olfaction Have Evolved Rapidly
      Gustatory System Controls the Sense of Taste
      Taste Has Five Submodalities or Qualities
      Taste Detection Occurs in Taste Buds
      Each Taste Is Detected by a Distinct Sensory Transduction Mechanism and Distinct Population of Taste Cells
      Sensory Neurons Carry Taste Information from the Taste Buds to the Brain
      Taste Information Is Transmitted from the Thalamus to the Gustatory Cortex
      Perception of Flavor Depends on Gustatory. Olfactory, and Somatosensory Inputs
      Insect Taste Organs Are Distributed Widely on the Body
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      pt. VI Movement
      33. Organization and Planning of Movement / Claude P.J. Ghez
      Motor Commands Arise Through Sensorimotor Transformations
      Central Nervous System Forms Internal Models of Sensorimotor Transformations
      Movement Inaccuracies Arise from Errors and Variability in the Transformations
      Different Coordinate Systems May Be Employed at Different Stages of Sensorimotor Transformations
      Stereotypical Patterns Are Employed in Many Movements
      Motor Signals Are Subject to Feedforward and Feedback Control
      Feedforward Control Does Not Use Sensory Feedback
      Feedback Control Uses Sensory Signals to Correct Movements
      Prediction Compensates for Sensorimotor Delays
      Sensory Processing Is Different for Action and Perception
      Motor Systems Must Adapt to Development and Experience
      Motor Learning Involves Adapting Internal Models for Novel Kinematic and Dynamic Conditions
      Kinematic and Dynamic Motor Learning Rely on Different Sensory Modalities
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      34. Motor Unit and Muscle Action / Keir G. Pearson
      Motor Unit Is the Elementary Unit of Motor Control
      Motor Unit Consists of a Motor Neuron and Multiple Muscle Fibers
      Properties of Motor Units Vary
      Physical Activity Can Alter Motor Unit Properties
      Muscle Force Is Controlled by the Recruitment and Discharge Rate of Motor Units
      Input-Output Properties of Motor Neurons Are Modified by Input from the Brain Stem
      Muscle Force Depends on the Structure of Muscle
      Sarcomere Contains the Contractile Proteins
      Noncontractile Elements Provide Essential Structural Support
      Contractile Force Depends on Muscle Fiber Activation, Length, and Velocity
      Muscle Torque Depends on Musculoskeletal Geometry
      Different Movements Require Different Activation Strategies
      Contraction Velocity Can Vary in Magnitude and Direction
      Movements Involve the Coordination of Many Muscles
      Muscle Work Depends on the Pattern of Activation
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      35. Spinal Reflexes / James E. Gordon
      Reflexes Are Adaptable to Particular Motor Tasks
      Spinal Reflexes Produce Coordinated Patterns of Muscle Contraction
      Cutaneous Reflexes Produce Complex Movements That Serve Protective and Postural Functions
      Stretch Reflex Resists the Lengthening of a Muscle
      Local Spinal Circuits Contribute to the Coordination of Reflex Responses
      Stretch Reflex Involves a Monosynaptic Pathway
      Ia Inhibitory Interneurons Coordinate the Muscles Surrounding a Joint
      Divergence in Reflex Pathways Amplifies Sensory Inputs and Coordinates Muscle Contractions
      Convergence of Inputs on Ib Interneurons Increases the Flexibility of Reflex Responses
      Central Motor Commands and Cognitive Processes Can Alter Synaptic Transmission in Spinal Reflex Pathways
      Central Neurons Can Regulate the Strength of Spinal Reflexes at Three Sites in the Reflex Pathway
      Gamma Motor Neurons Adjust the Sensitivity of Muscle Spindles
      Proprioceptive Reflexes Play an Important Role in Regulating Both Voluntary and Automatic Movements
      Reflexes Involving Limb Muscles Are Mediated Through Spinal and Supraspinal Pathways
      Stretch Reflexes Reinforce Central Commands for Movements
      Damage to the Central Nervous System Produces Characteristic Alterations in Reflex Response and Muscle Tone
      Interruption of Descending Pathways to the Spinal Cord Frequently Produces Spasticity
      Transection of the Spinal Cord in Humans Leads to a Period of Spinal Shock Followed by Hyperreflexia
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      36. Locomotion / James E. Gordon
      Complex Sequence of Muscle Contractions Is Required for Stepping
      Motor Pattern for Stepping Is Organized at the Spinal Level
      Contraction in Flexor and Extensor Muscles of the Hind Legs Is Controlled by Mutually Inhibiting Networks
      Central Pattern Generators Are Not Driven by Sensory Input
      Contents note continued: Spinal Networks Can Generate Complex Locomotor Patterns
      Sensory Input from Moving Limbs Regulates Stepping
      Proprioception Regulates the Timing and Amplitude of Stepping
      Sensory Input from the Skin Allows Stepping to Adjust to Unexpected Obstacles
      Descending Pathways Are Necessary for Initiation and Adaptive Control of Stepping
      Pathways from the Brain Stem Initiate Walking and Control Its Speed
      Cerebellum Fine-Tunes Locomotor Patterns by Regulating the Timing and Intensity of Descending Signals
      Motor Cortex Uses Visual Information to Control Precise Stepping Movements
      Planning and Coordination of Visually Guided Movements Involves the Posterior Parietal Cortex
      Human Walking May Involve Spinal Pattern Generators
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      37. Voluntary Movement: The Primary Motor Cortex / Giacomo Rizzolatti
      Motor Functions Are Localized within the Cerebral Cortex
      Many Cortical Areas Contribute to the Control of Voluntary Movements
      Voluntary Motor Control Appears to Require Serial Processing
      Functional Anatomy of Precentral Motor Areas is Complex
      Anatomical Connections of the Precentral Motor Areas Do Not Validate a Strictly Serial Organization
      Primary Motor Cortex Plays an Important Role in the Generation of Motor Commands
      Motor Commands Are Population Codes
      Motor Cortex Encodes Both the Kinematics and Kinetics of Movement
      Hand and Finger Movements Are Directly Controlled by the Motor Cortex
      Sensory Inputs from Somatic Mechanoreceptors Have Feedback, Feed-Forward, and Adaptive Learning Roles
      Motor Map Is Dynamic and Adaptable
      Motor Cortex Contributes to Motor Skill Learning
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      38. Voluntary Movement: The Parietal and Premotor Cortex / John F. Kalaska
      Voluntary Movement Expresses an Intention to Act
      Voluntary Movement Requires Sensory Information About the World and the Body
      Reaching for an Object Requires Sensory Information About the Object's Location in Space
      Space Is Represented in Several Cortical Areas with Different Sensory and Motor Properties
      Inferior Parietal and Ventral Premotor Cortex Contain Representations of Peripersonal Space
      Superior Parietal Cortex Uses Sensory Information to Guide Arm Movements Toward Objects in Peripersonal Space
      Premotor and Primary Motor Cortex Formulate More Specific Motor Plans About Intended Reaching Movements
      Grasping an Object Requires Sensory Information About Its Physical Properties
      Neurons in the Inferior Parietal Cortex Associate the Physical Properties of an Object with Specific Motor Acts
      Activity of Neurons of the Inferior Parietal Cortex Is Influenced by the Purpose of an Action
      Activity of Neurons in the Ventral Premotor Cortex Correlates with Motor Acts
      Primary Motor Cortex Transforms a Grasping Action Plan into Appropriate Finger Movements
      Supplementary Motor Complex Plays a Crucial Role in Selecting and Executing Appropriate Voluntary Actions
      Cortical Motor System Is Involved in Planning Action
      Cortical Motor Areas Apply the Rules That Govern Behavior
      Premotor Cortex Contributes to Perceptual Decisions That Guide Motor Behavior
      Premotor Cortex Is Involved in Learning Motor Skills
      Cortical Motor Areas Contribute to Understanding the Observed Actions of Others
      Relationship between Motor Acts, the Sense of Volition, and Free Will Is Uncertain
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      39. Control of Gaze / Mark F. Walker
      Six Neuronal Control Systems Keep the Eyes on Target
      Active Fixation System Keeps the Fovea on a Stationary Target
      Saccadic System Points the Fovea Toward Objects of Interest
      Smooth-Pursuit System Keeps Moving Targets on the Fovea
      Vergence System Aligns the Eyes to Look at Targets at Different Depths
      Eye Is Moved by the Six Extraocular Muscles
      Eye Movements Rotate the Eye in the Orbit
      Six Extraocular Muscles Form Three Agonist-Antagonist Pairs
      Movements of the Two Eyes Are Coordinated
      Extraocular Muscles Are Controlled by Three Cranial Nerves
      Extraocular Motor Neurons Encode Eye Position and Velocity
      Motor Circuits for Saccades Lie in the Brain Stem
      Horizontal Saccades Are Generated in the Pontine Reticular Formation
      Vertical Saccades Are Generated in the Mesencephalic Reticular Formation
      Brain Stem Lesions Result in Characteristic Deficits in Eye Movements
      Saccades Are Controlled by the Cerebral Cortex Through the Superior Colliculus
      Superior Colliculus Integrates Visual and Motor Information into Oculomotor Signals to the Brain Stem
      Rostral Superior Colliculus Facilitates Visual Fixation
      Basal Ganglia Inhibit the Superior Colliculus
      Two Regions of Cerebral Cortex Control the Superior Colliculus
      Control of Saccades Can Be Modified by Experience
      Smooth Pursuit Involves the Cerebral Cortex, Cerebellum, and Pons
      Some Gaze Shifts Require Coordinated Head and Eye Movements
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      40. Vestibular System / A. J. Hudspeth
      Vestibular Apparatus in the Inner Ear Contains Five Receptor Organs
      Hair Cells Transduce Mechanical Stimuli into Receptor Potentials
      Semicircular Canals Sense Head Rotation
      Otolith Organs Sense Linear Accelerations
      Most Movements Elicit Complex Patterns of Vestibular Stimulation
      Vestibulo-Ocular Reflexes Stabilize the Eyes and Body When the Head Moves
      Rotational Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex Compensates for Head Rotation
      Otolithic Reflexes Compensate for Linear Motion and Head Deviations
      Vestibulo-Ocular Reflexes Are Supplemented by Optokinetic Responses
      Central Connections of the Vestibular Apparatus Integrate Vestibular, Visual, and Motor Signals
      Vestibular Nerve Carries Information on Head Velocity to the Vestibular Nuclei
      Brain Stem Network Connects the Vestibular System with the Oculomotor System
      Two Visual Pathways Drive the Optokinetic Reflexes
      Cerebral Cortex Integrates Vestibular, Visual, and Somatosensory Inputs
      Cerebellum Adjusts the Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex
      Clinical Syndromes Elucidate Normal Vestibular Function
      Unilateral Vestibular Hypofunction Causes Pathological Nystagmus
      Bilateral Vestibular Hypofunction Interferes with Normal Vision
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      41. Posture / Fay B. Horak
      Postural Equilibrium and Orientation Are Distinct Sensorimotor Processes
      Postural Equilibrium Requires Control of the Body's Center of Mass
      Balance During Stance Requires Muscle Activation
      Automatic Postural Responses Counteract Unexpected Disturbances
      Automatic Postural Responses Adapt to Changes in the Requirements for Support
      Anticipatory Postural Adjustments Compensate for Voluntary Movements
      Postural Orientation Is Important for Optimizing Execution of Tasks, Interpreting Sensations, and Anticipating Disturbances to Balance
      Sensory Information from Several Modalities Must Be Integrated to Maintain Equilibrium and Orientation
      Somatosensory Afferents Are Important for Timing and Direction of Automatic Postural Responses
      Vestibular Information Is Important for Balance on Unstable Surfaces and During Head Movements
      Visual Information Provides Advance Knowledge of Potentially Destabilizing Situations and Assists in Orienting to the Environment
      Information from a Single Sensory Modality Can Be Ambiguous
      Postural Control System Uses a Body Schema that Incorporates Internal Models for Balance
      Influence of Each Sensory Modality on Balance and Orientation Changes According to Task Requirements
      Control of Posture Is Distributed in the Nervous System
      Spinal Cord Circuits Are Sufficient for Maintaining Antigravity Support but Not Balance
      Brain Stem and Cerebellum Integrate Sensory Signals for Posture
      Spinocerebellum and Basal Ganglia Are Important in Adaptation of Posture
      Cerebral Cortex Centers Contribute to Postural Control
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      42. Cerebellum / W. Thomas Thach
      Cerebellar Diseases Have Distinctive Symptoms and Signs
      Cerebellum Has Several Functionally Distinct Regions
      Cerebellar Microcircuit Has a Distinct and Regular Organization
      Neurons in the Cerebellar Cortex Are Organized into Three Layers
      Two Afferent Fiber Systems Encode Information Differently
      Parallel Pathways Compare Excitatory and Inhibitory Signals
      Recurrent Loops Occur at Several Levels
      Vestibulocerebellum Regulates Balance and Eye Movements
      Spinocerebellum Regulates Body and Limb Movements
      Somatosensory Information Reaches the Spinocerebellum Through Direct and Indirect Mossy Fiber Pathways
      Spinocerebellum Modulates the Descending Motor Systems
      Vermis Controls Saccadic and Smooth-Pursuit Eye Movements
      Spinocerebellar Regulation of Movement Follows Three Organizational Principles
      Are the Parallel Fibers a Mechanism for Motor Coordination?
      Cerebrocerebellum Is Involved in Planning Movement
      Cerebrocerebellum Is Part of a High-Level Internal Feedback Circuit That Plans Movement and Regulates Cortical Motor Programs
      Lesions of the Cerebrocerebellum Disrupt Motor Planning and Prolong Reaction Time
      Cerebrocerebellum May Have Cognitive Functions Unconnected with Motor Control
      Cerebellum Participates in Motor Learning
      Climbing-Fiber Activity Produces Long-Lasting Effects on the Synaptic Efficacy of Parallel Fibers
      Learning Occurs at Multiple Sites in the Cerebellar Microcircuit
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      43. Basal Ganglia / Mahlon R. DeLong
      Contents note continued: Basal Ganglia Consist of Several Interconnected Nuclei
      Family of Cortico-Basal Ganglia-Thalamocortical Circuits Subserves Skeletomotor, Oculomotor, Associative, and Limbic Functions
      Cortico-Basal Ganglia-Thalamocortical Motor Circuit Originates and Terminates in Cortical Areas Related to Movement
      Motor Circuit Plays a Role in Multiple Aspects of Movement
      Dopaminergic and Cholinergic Inputs to the Striatum Are Implicated in Reinforcement Motor Learning
      Other Basal Ganglia Circuits Are Involved in the Regulation of Eye Movements, Mood, Reward, and Executive Functions
      Diseases of the Basal Ganglia Are Associated with Disturbances of Movement, Executive Function, Behavior, and Mood
      Abnormalities in the Basal Ganglia Motor Circuit Result in a Wide Spectrum of Movement Disorders
      Deficiency of Dopamine in the Basal Ganglia Leads to Parkinsonism
      Reduced and Abnormally Patterned Basal Ganglia Output Results in Hyperkinetic Disorders
      Abnormal Neuronal Activity in Nonmotor Circuits Is Associated with Several Neuropsychiatric Disorders
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      44. Genetic Mechanisms in Degenerative Diseases of the Nervous System / Huda Y. Zoghbi
      Expanded Trinucleotide Repeats Characterize Several Neurodegenerative Diseases
      Huntington Disease Involves Degeneration of the Striatum
      Spinobulbar Muscular Atrophy Is Due to Abnormal Function of the Androgen Receptor
      Hereditary Spinocerebellar Ataxias Include Several Diseases with Similar Symptoms but Distinct Etiologies
      Parkinson Disease Is a Common Degenerative Disorder of the Elderly
      Selective Neuronal Loss Occurs After Damage to Ubiquitously Expressed Genes
      Animal Models Are Powerful Tools for Studying Neurodegenerative Diseases
      Mouse Models Reproduce Many Features of Neurodegenerative Diseases
      Invertebrate Models Manifest Progressive Neurodegeneration
      Several Pathways Underlie the Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Diseases
      Protein Misfolding and Degradation Contribute to Parkinson Disease
      Protein Misfolding Triggers Pathological Alterations in Gene Expression
      Mitochondrial Dysfunction Exacerbates Neurodegenerative Disease
      Apoptosis and Caspase Modify the Severity of Neurodegeneration
      Advances in Understanding the Molecular Basis of Neurodegenerative Diseases Are Opening Possibilities for Approaches to Therapeutic Intervention
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      pt. VII Unconscious and Conscious Processing of Neural Information
      45. Sensory, Motor, and Reflex Functions of the Brain Stem / George B. Richerson
      Cranial Nerves Are Homologous to the Spinal Nerves
      Cranial Nerves Mediate the Sensory and Motor Functions of the Face and Head and the Autonomic Functions of the Body
      Cranial Nerves Leave the Skull in Groups and Often Are Injured Together
      Cranial Nerve Nuclei in the Brain Stem Are Organized on the Same Basic Plan As Are Sensory and Motor Regions of the Spinal Cord
      Adult Cranial Nerve Nuclei Have a Columnar Organization
      Embryonic Cranial Nerve Nuclei Have a Segmental Organization
      Organization of the Brain Stem and Spinal Cord Differs in Three Important Ways
      Neuronal Ensembles in the Brain Stem Reticular Formation Coordinate Reflexes and Simple Behaviors Necessary for Homeostasis and Survival
      Cranial Nerve Reflexes Involve Mono- and Polysynaptic Brain Stem Relays
      Pattern Generator Neurons Coordinate Stereotypic and Autonomic Behaviors
      Complex Pattern Generator Regulates Breathing
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      46. Modulatory Functions of the Brain Stem / Clifford B. Saper
      Ascending Monoaminergic and Cholinergic Projections from the Brain Stem Maintain Arousal
      Monoaminergic and Cholinergic Neurons Share Many Properties and Functions
      Many Monoaminergic and Cholinergic Neurons Are Linked to the Sleep-Wake Cycle
      Monoaminergic and Cholinergic Neurons Maintain Arousal by Modulating Neurons in the Thalamus and Cortex
      Monoamines Regulate Many Brain Functions Other Than Arousal
      Cognitive Performance Is Optimized by Ascending Projections from Monoaminergic Neurons
      Monoamines Are Involved in Autonomic Regulation and Breathing
      Pain and Anti-nociceptive Pathways Are Modulated by Monoamines
      Monoamines Facilitate Motor Activity
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      Postscript: Evaluation of the Comatose Patient
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      47. Autonomic Motor System and the Hypothalamus / Larry W. Swanson
      Autonomic Motor System Mediates Homeostasis
      Autonomic System Contains Visceral Motor Neurons That Are Organized into Ganglia
      Preganglionic Neurons Are Localized in Three Regions Along the Brain Stem and Spinal Cord
      Sympathetic Ganglia Project to Many Targets Throughout the Body
      Parasympathetic Ganglia Innervate Single Organs
      Enteric Ganglia Regulate the Gastrointestinal Tract
      Both the Pre- and Postsynaptic Neurons of the Autonomic Motor System Use Co-Transmission at Their Synaptic Connections
      Autonomic Behavior Is the Product of Cooperation Between All Three Autonomic Divisions
      Autonomic and Endocrine Function Is Coordinated by a Central Autonomic Network Centered in the Hypothalamus
      Hypothalamus Integrates Autonomic, Endocrine, and Behavioral Responses
      Magnocellular Neuroendocrine Neurons Control the Pituitary Gland Directly
      Parvicellular Neuroendocrine Neurons Control the Pituitary Gland Indirectly
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      48. Emotions and Feelings / Antonio R. Damasio
      Modern Search for the Emotional Brain Began in the Late 19th Century
      Amygdala Emerged as a Critical Regulatory Site in Circuits of Emotions
      Studies of Avoidance Conditioning First Implicated the Amygdala in Fear Responses
      Pavlovian Conditioning Is Used Extensively to Study the Contribution of the Amygdala to Learned Fear
      Amygdala Has Been Implicated in Unconditioned (Innate) Fear in Animals
      Amygdala Is Also Important for Fear in Humans
      Amygdala Is Involved in Positive Emotions in Animals and Humans
      Other Brain Areas Contribute to Emotional Processing
      Neural Correlates of Feeling Are Beginning to Be Understood
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      49. Homeostasis, Motivation, and Addictive States / Steven E. Hyman
      Drinking Occurs Both in Response to and in Anticipation of Dehydration
      Body Fluids in the Intracellular and Extracellular Compartments Are Regulated Differentially
      Intravascular Compartment Is Monitored by Parallel Endocrine and Neural Sensors
      Intracellular Compartment Is Monitored by Osmoreceptors
      Motivational Systems Anticipate the Appearance and Disappearance of Error Signals
      Energy Stores Are Precisely Regulated
      Leptin and Insulin Contribute to Long-Term Energy Balance
      Long-Term and Short-Term Signals Interact to Control Feeding
      Motivational States Influence Goal-Directed Behavior
      Both Internal and External Stimuli Contribute to Motivational States
      Motivational States Serve Both Regulatory and Nonregulatory Needs
      Brain Reward Circuitry May Provide a Common Logic for Goal Selection
      Drug Abuse and Addiction Are Goal-Directed Behaviors
      Addictive Drugs Recruit the Brain's Reward Circuitry
      Addictive Drugs Alter the Long-Term Functioning of the Nervous System
      Dopamine May Act As a Learning Signal
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      50. Seizures and Epilepsy / Gary L. Westbrook
      Classification of Seizures and the Epilepsies Is Important for Pathogenesis and Treatment
      Seizures Are Temporary Disruptions of Brain Function
      Epilepsy Is the Chronic Condition of Recurrent Seizures
      Electroencephalogram Represents the Collective Behavior of Cortical Neurons
      Focal Seizures Originate Within a Small Group of Neurons Known as a Seizure Focus
      Neurons in a Seizure Focus Have Characteristic Activity
      Breakdown of Surround Inhibition Leads to Synchronization
      Spread of Focal Seizures Involves Normal Cortical Circuitry
      Primary Generalized Seizures Are Driven by Thalamocortical Circuits
      Locating the Seizure Focus Is Critical to the Surgical Treatment of Epilepsy
      Prolonged Seizures Can Cause Brain Damage
      Repeated Convulsive Seizures Are a Medical Emergency
      Excitotoxicity Underlies Seizure-Related Brain Damage
      Factors Leading to Development of Epilepsy Are an Unfolding Mystery
      Among the Genetic Causes of Epilepsy Are Ion Channel Mutations
      Epilepsies Involving Focal Seizures May Be a Maladaptive Response to Injury
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      51. Sleep and Dreaming / Gary L. Westbrook
      Sleep Consists of Alternating REM and Non-REM Periods
      Non-REM Sleep Has Four Stages
      REM and Non-REM Dreams Are Different
      Sleep Obeys Circadian and Ultradian Rhythms
      Circadian Rhythm Clock Is Based on a Cyclic Production of Nuclear Transcription Factors
      Ultradian Rhythm of Sleep Is Controlled by the Brain Stem
      Sleep-Related Activity in the EEG Is Generated Through Local and Long-Range Circuits
      Sleep Changes with Age
      Characteristics of Sleep Vary Greatly Between Species
      Sleep Disorders Have Behavioral Psychological and Neurological Causes
      Insomnia Is the Most Common Form of Sleep Disruption
      Excessive Daytime Sleepiness Is Indicative of Disrupted Sleep
      Disruption of Breathing During Sleep Apnea Results in Fragmentation of Sleep
      Narcolepsy Is Characterized by Abnormal Activation of Sleep Mechanisms
      Restless Leg Syndrome and Periodic Leg Movements Disrupt Sleep
      Parasomnias Include Sleep Walking, Sleep Talking, and Night Terrors
      Contents note continued: Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders Are Characterized by an Activity Cycle That Is Out of Phase with the World
      Overall View
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      References
      pt. VIII Development and the Emergence of Behavior
      52. Patterning the Nervous System / Joshua R. Sanes
      Neural Tube Becomes Regionalized Early in Embryogenesis
      Secreted Signals Promote Neural Cell Fate
      Development of the Neural Plate Is Induced by Signals from the Organizer Region
      Neural Induction Is Mediated by Peptide Growth Factors and Their Inhibitors
      Rostrocaudal Patterning of the Neural Tube Involves Signaling Gradients and Secondary Organizing Centers
      Signals from the Mesoderm and Endoderm Define the Rostrocaudal Pattern of the Neural Plate
      Signals from Organizing Centers within the Neural Tube Pattern the Forebrain, Midbrain, and Hindbrain
      Dorsoventral Patterning of the Neural Tube Involves Similar Mechanisms at Different Rostrocaudal Levels
      Ventral Neural Tube Is Patterned by Sonic Hedgehog Protein Secreted from the Notochord and Floor Plate
      Dorsal Neural Tube Is Patterned by Bone Morphogenetic Proteins
      Dorsoventral Patterning Mechanisms Are Conserved Along the Rostrocaudal Extent of the Neural Tube
      Local Signals Determine Functional Subclasses of Neurons
      Rostrocaudal Position Is a Major Determinant of Motor Neuron Subtype
      Local Signals and Transcriptional Circuits Further Diversify Motor Neuron Subtypes
      Developing Forebrain Is Patterned by Intrinsic and Extrinsic Influences
      Inductive Signals and Transcription Factor Gradients Establish Regional Differentiation
      Afferent Inputs Also Contribute to Regionalization
      Overall View
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      References
      53. Differentiation and Survival of Nerve Cells / Joshua R. Sanes
      Proliferation of Neural Progenitor Cells Involves Symmetric and Asymmetric Modes of Cell Division
      Radial Glial Cells Serve As Neural Progenitors and Structural Scaffolds
      Generation of Neurons or Glial Cells Is Regulated by Delta-Notch Signaling and Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Transcription Factors
      Neuronal Migration Establishes the Layered Organization of the Cerebral Cortex
      Central Neurons Migrate Along Glial Cells and Axons to Reach Their Final Settling Position
      Glial Cells Serve As a Scaffold in Radial Migration
      Axon Tracts Serve As a Scaffold for Tangential Migration
      Neural Crest Cell Migration in the Peripheral Nervous System Does Not Rely on Scaffolding
      Neurotransmitter Phenotype of a Neuron Is Plastic
      Transmitter Phenotype of a Peripheral Neuron Is Influenced by Signals from the Neuronal Target
      Transmitter Phenotype of a Central Neuron Is Controlled by Transcription Factors
      Survival of a Neuron Is Regulated by Neurotrophic Signals from the Neuron's Target
      Neurotrophic Factor Hypothesis Was Confirmed by the Discovery of Nerve Growth Factor
      Neurotrophins Are the Best Studied Neurotrophic Factors
      Neurotrophic Factors Suppress a Latent Death Program in Cells
      Overall View
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      References
      54. Growth and Guidance of Axons / Thomas M. Jessell
      Differences in the Molecular Properties of Axons and Dendrites Emerge Early in Development
      Neuronal Polarity Is Established Through Rearrangements of the Cytoskeleton
      Dendrites Are Patterned by Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors
      Growth Cone Is a Sensory Transducer and a Motor Structure
      Molecular Cues Guide Axons to Their Targets
      Growth of Retinal Ganglion Axons Is Oriented in a Series of Discrete Steps
      Growth Cones Diverge at the Optic Chiasm
      Ephrins Provide Gradients of Inhibitory Signals in the Brain
      Axons from Some Spinal Neurons Cross the Midline
      Netrins Direct Developing Commissural Axons Across the Midline
      Chemoattractant and Chemorepellent Factors Pattern the Midline
      Overall View
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      References
      55. Formation and Elimination of Synapses / Thomas M. Jessell
      Recognition of Synaptic Targets Is Specific
      Recognition Molecules Promote Selective Synapse Formation
      Different Synaptic Inputs Are Directed to Discrete Domains of the Postsynaptic Cell
      Neural Activity Sharpens Synaptic Specificity
      Principles of Synaptic Differentiation Are Revealed at the Neuromuscular Junction
      Differentiation of Motor Nerve Terminals Is Organized by Muscle Fibers
      Differentiation of the Postsynaptic Muscle Membrane Is Organized by the Motor Nerve
      Nerve Regulates Transcription of Acetylcholine Receptor Genes
      Neuromuscular Junction Matures in a Series of Steps
      Central Synapses Develop in Ways Similar to Neuromuscular Junctions
      Neurotransmitter Receptors Become Localized at Central Synapses
      Synaptic Organizing Molecules Pattern Central Nerve Terminals
      Glial Cells Promote Synapse Formation
      Some Synapses Are Eliminated After Birth
      Overall View
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      References
      56. Experience and the Refinement of Synaptic Connections / Thomas M. Jessell
      Development of Human Mental Function Is Influenced by Early Experience
      Early Experience Has Lifelong Effects on Social Behaviors
      Development of Visual Perception Requires Visual Experience
      Development of Binocular Circuits in the Visual Cortex Depends on Postnatal Activity
      Visual Experience Affects the Structure and Function of the Visual Cortex
      Patterns of Electrical Activity Organize Binocular Circuits in the Visual Cortex
      Reorganization of Visual Circuits During a Critical Period Involves Alterations in Synaptic Connections
      Reorganization Depends on a Change in the Balance of Excitatory and Inhibitory Inputs
      Postsynaptic Structures Are Rearranged During the Critical Period
      Thalamic Inputs Are Also Remodeled
      Synaptic Stabilization Contributes to Closing the Critical Period
      Segregation of Retinal Inputs in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Is Driven by Spontaneous Neural Activity In Utero
      Activity-Dependent Refinement of Connections Is a General Feature of Circuits in the Central Nervous System
      Many Aspects of Visual System Development Are Activity-Dependent
      Auditory Maps Are Refined During a Critical Period
      Distinct Regions of the Brain Have Different Critical Periods of Development
      Critical Periods Can Be Reopened in Adulthood
      Overall View
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      References
      57. Repairing the Damaged Brain / Thomas M. Jessell
      Damage to Axons Affects Neurons and Neighboring Cells
      Axon Degeneration Is an Active Process
      Axotomy Leads to Reactive Responses in Nearby Cells
      Central Axons Regenerate Poorly After Injury
      Therapeutic Interventions May Promote Regeneration of Injured Central Neurons
      Environmental Factors Support the Regeneration of Injured Axons
      Components of Myelin Inhibit Neurite Outgrowth
      Injury-Induced Scarring Hinders Axonal Regeneration
      Intrinsic Growth Program Promotes Regeneration
      Formation of New Connections by Intact Axons Can Lead to Functional Recovery
      Neurons in the Injured Brain Die but New Ones Can Be Born
      Therapeutic Interventions May Retain or Replace Injured Central Neurons
      Transplantation of Neurons or Their Progenitors Can Replace Lost Neurons
      Stimulation of Neurogenesis in Regions of Injury May Contribute to Restoring Function
      Transplantation of Nonneuronal Cells or Their Progenitors Can Improve Neuronal Function
      Restoration of Function Is the Aim of Regenerative Therapies
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      References
      58. Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System / Joshua R. Sanes
      Genes and Hormones Determine Physical Differences Between Males and Females
      Chromosomal Sex Directs the Gonadal Differentiation of the Embryo
      Gonads Synthesize Hormones That Promote Sexual Differentiation
      Steroid Hormones Act by Binding to Specific Receptors
      Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System Generates Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors
      Sexually Dimorphic Neural Circuit Controls Erectile Function
      Sexually Dimorphic Neural Circuit Controls Song Production in Birds
      Sexually Dimorphic Neural Circuit in the Hypothalamus Controls Mating Behavior
      Environmental Cues Control Some Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors
      Pheromones Control Partner Choice in Mice
      Early Experience Modifies Later Maternal Behavior
      Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Brain May Correlate with Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
      Overall View
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      References
      59. Aging Brain / Thomas M. Jessell
      Structure and Function of the Brain Change with Age
      Cognitive Decline Is Dramatic in a Small Percentage of the Elderly
      Alzheimer Disease Is the Most Common Senile Dementia
      Brain in Alzheimer Disease Is Altered by Atrophy, Amyloid Plaques, and Neurofibrillary Tangles
      Amyloid Plaques Contain Toxic Pep tides That Contribute to Alzheimer Pathology
      Neurofibrillary Tangles Contain Microtubule-Associated Proteins
      Risk Factors for Alzheimer Disease Have Been Identified
      Alzheimer Disease Can Be Diagnosed Well but Available Treatments Are Poor
      Overall View
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      References
      pt. IX Language, Thought, Affect, and Learning
      60. Language / Antonio R. Damasio
      Language Has Many Functional Levels: Phonemes, Morphemes, Words, and Sentences
      Language Acquisition in Children Follows a Universal Pattern
      "Universalist" Infant Becomes Linguistically Specialized by Age 1 Year
      Language Uses the Visual System
      Prosodic Cues Assist Learning of Words and Sentences
      Infants Use Transitional Probabilities to Identify Words in Cntinuous Speech
      There Is a Critical Period for Language Learning
      Contents note continued: "Motherese" Enhances Language Learning
      Several Cortical Regions Are Involved in Language Processing
      Language Circuits in the Brain Were First Identified in Studies of Aphasia
      Left Hemisphere Is Specialized for Phonetic, Word, and Sentence Processing
      Prosody Engages Both Right and Left Hemispheres Depending on the Information Conveyed
      Language Processing in Bilinguals Depends on Age of Acquisition and Language Use
      Model for the Neural Basis of Language Is Changing
      Brain Injuries Responsible for the Aphasias Provide Important Insights into Language Processing
      Broca Aphasia Results from a Large Lesion in the Left Frontal Lobe
      Wernicke Aphasia Results from Damage to Left Posterior Temporal Lobe Structures
      Conduction Aphasia Results from Damage to a Specific Sector of Posterior Language Areas
      Global Aphasia Results from Widespread Damage to Several Language Centers
      Transcortical Aphasias Result from Damage to Areas Near Broca's and Wernicke's Areas
      Classical Aphasias Have Not Implicated All Brain Areas Important for Language
      Overall View
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      References
      61. Disorders of Conscious and Unconscious Mental Processes / Christopher D. Frith
      Conscious and Unconscious Cognitive Processes Have Distinctive Neural Correlates
      Differences Between Conscious Processes in Perception Can Be Seen in Exaggerated Form after Brain Damage
      Control of Action Is Largely Unconscious
      Conscious Recall of Memory Is a Creative Process
      Behavioral Observation Needs to Be Supplemented with Subjective Reports
      Brain Imaging Can Corroborate Subjective Reports
      Malingering and Hysteria Can Lead to Unreliable Subjective Reports
      Overall View
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      References
      62. Disorders of Thought and Volition: Schizophrenia / Jonathan D. Cohen
      Diagnosis of Schizophrenia Is Based on Standardized Clinical Criteria
      Symptoms of Schizophrenia Can Be Grouped into Positive, Negative, and Cognitive
      Schizophrenia Is Characterized by Psychotic Episodes
      Both Genetic and Nongenetic Risk Factors Contribute to Schizophrenia
      Neuroanatomic Abnormalities May Be a Causative Factor in Schizophrenia
      Loss of Gray Matter in the Cerebral Cortex Appears to Result from Loss of Synaptic Contacts Rather Than Loss of Cells
      Abnormalities in Brain Development During Adolescence May Contribute to Schizophrenia
      Antipsychotic Drugs Act on Dopaminergic Systems in the Brain
      Overall View
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      References
      63. Disorders of Mood and Anxiety / Jonathan D. Cohen
      Most Common Disorders of Mood Are Unipolar Depression and Bipolar Disorder
      Unipolar Depression Often Begins Early in Life
      Bipolar Disorder Includes Episodes of Mania
      Mood Disorders Are Common and Disabling
      Both Genetic and Nongenetic Risk Factors Play an Important Role in Mood Disorders
      Specific Brain Regions and Circuits Are Involved in Mood Disorders
      Depression and Stress Are Interrelated
      Major Depression Can Be Treated Effectively
      Antidepressant Drugs Target Monoaminergic Neural Systems
      Psychotherapy Is Effective in the Treatment of Major Depression
      Electroconvulsive Therapy Is Highly Effective Against Depression
      Bipolar Disorder Can Be Treated with Lithium and Several Drugs Initially Developed a Anticonvulsants
      Anxiety Disorders Stem from Abnormal Regulation of Fear
      Anxiety Disorders Have a Genetic Component
      Animal Models of Fear May Shed Light on Human Anxiety Disorders
      Neuro-imaging Implicates Amygdala-Based Circuits in Human Fear and Anxiety
      Anxiety Disorders Can Be Treated Effectively with Medications and Psychotherapy
      Overall View
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      References
      64. Autism and Other Neurodevelopmental Disorders Affecting Cognition / Stephen T. Warren
      Autism Has Characteristic Behavioral Features
      There Is a Strong Genetic Component in Autism
      Autism Has Characteristic Neurological Abnormalities
      There Are Distinctive Cognitive Abnormalities in Autism
      Social Communication Is Impaired: The Mind Blindness Hypothesis
      Other Social Mechanisms Contribute to Autism
      People with Autism Show a Lack of Behavioral Flexibility
      Some People with Autism Have Special Talents
      Some Neurodevelopmental Disorders Have a Known Genetic Basis
      Fragile X Syndrome
      Rett Syndrome
      Down Syndrome
      Prader-Willi and Angelman Syndrome and Other Disorders
      Overall View
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      References
      65. Learning and Memory / Anthony D. Wagner
      Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Involve Different Neural Systems
      Short-Term Memory Maintains Transient Representations of Information Relevant to Immediate Goals
      Short-Term Memory Is Selectively Transferred to Long-Term Memory
      Long-Term Memory Can Be Classified As Explicit or Implicit
      Explicit Memory Has Episodic and Semantic Forms
      Explicit Memory Processing Involves at Least Four Distinct Operations
      Episodic Knowledge Depends on Interaction Between the Medial Temporal Lobe and Association Cortices
      Semantic Knowledge Is Stored in Distinct Association Cortices and Retrieval Depends on the Prefrontal Cortex
      Implicit Memory Supports Perceptual Priming
      Implicit Memory Can Be Associative or Nonassociative
      Classical Conditioning Involves Associating Two Stimuli
      Operant Conditioning Involves Associating a Specific Behavior with a Reinforcing Event
      Associative Learning Is Constrained by the Biology of the Organism
      Errors and Imperfections in Memory Shed Light on Normal Memory Processes
      Overall View
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      References
      66. Cellular Mechanisms of Implicit Memory Storage and the Biological Basis of Individuality / Steven A. Siegelbaum
      Storage of Implicit Memory Involves Changes in the Effectiveness of Synaptic Transmission
      Habituation Results from an Activity-Dependent Presynaptic Depression of Synaptic Transmission
      Sensitization Involves Presynaptic Facilitation of Synaptic Transmission
      Classical Conditioning of Fear Involves Coordinated Pre- and Postsynaptic Facilitation of Synaptic Transmission
      Long-Term Storage of Implicit Memory Involves Changes in Chromatin Structure and Gene Expression Mediated by the cAMP-PKA-CREB Pathway
      Cyclic AMP Signaling Has a Role in Long-Term Sensitization
      Long-Term Synaptic Facilitation Is Synapse Specific
      Long-Term Facilitation Requires a Prion-Like Protein Regulator of Local Protein Synthesis for Maintenance
      Classical Fear Conditioning in Flies Uses the cAMP-PKA-CREB Pathway
      Memory for Learned Fear in Mammals Involves the Amygdala
      Habit Learning and Memory Require the Striatum
      Learning-Induced Changes in the Structure of the Brain Contribute to the Biological Basis of Individuality
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      References
      67. Prefrontal Cortex, Hippocampus, and the Biology of Explicit Memory Storage / Eric R. Kandel
      Working Memory Depends on Persistent Neural Activity in the Prefrontal Cortex
      Intrinsic Membrane Properties Can Generate Persistent Activity
      Network Connections Can Sustain Activity
      Working Memory Depends on the Modulatory Transmitter Dopamine
      Explicit Memory in Mammals Involves Different Forms of Long-Term Potentiation in the Hippocampus
      Long-Term Potentiation in the Mossy Fiber Pathway Is Nonassociative
      Long-Term Potentiation in the Schaffer Collateral Pathway Is Associative
      Long-Term Potentiation in the Schaffer Collateral Pathway Follows Hebbian Learning Rules
      Long-Term Potentiation Has Early and Late Phases
      Spatial Memory Depends on Long-Term Potentiation in the Hippocampus
      Spatial Map of the External World Is Formed in the Hippocampus
      Different Subregions of the Hippocampus Are Required for Pattern Separation and for Pattern Completion
      Memory Also Depends on Long-Term Depression of Synaptic Transmission
      Epigenetic Changes in Chromatin Structure Are Important for Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity and Learning and Memory
      Are There Molecular Building Blocks for Learning?
      Overall View
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      References
      Appendices
      A. Review of Basic Circuit Theory / John Koester
      Basic Electrical Parameters
      Potential Difference (V or E)
      Current (I)
      Conductance (g)
      Capacitance (C)
      Rules for Circuit Analysis
      Conductance
      Current
      Capacitance
      Potential Difference
      Current in Circuits with Capacitance
      Circuit with Capacitor
      Circuit with Resistor and Capacitor in Series
      Circuit with Resistor and Capacitor in Parallel
      B. Neurological Examination of the Patient / John C.M. Brust
      Mental Status
      Alertness and Attentiveness
      Behavior, Mood, and Thought
      Orientation and Memory
      Cognitive Abilities
      Language Disorders
      Cranial Nerve Function
      Olfactory Nerve (Cranial N. I)
      Optic Nerve (Cranial N. II)
      Oculomotor, Trochlear, and Abducens Nerves (Cranial N. III, IV, VI)
      Trigeminal Nerve (Cranial N. V)
      Facial Nerve (Cranial N. VII)
      Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial N. VIII)
      Glossopharyngeal and Vagus Nerves (Cranial N. IX, X)
      Spinal Accessory Nerve
      Hypoglossal Nerve (Cranial N. XII)
      Musculoskeletal System
      Sensory Systems
      Motor Coordination
      Gait and Stance
      Balance
      Deep Tendon Reflexes
      C. Circulation of the Brain / John C.M. Brust
      Blood Supply of the Brain Can Be Divided into Arterial Territories
      Cerebral Vessels Have Unique Physiological Responses
      Stroke Is the Result of Disease Involving Blood Vessels
      Clinical Vascular Syndromes May Follow Vessel Occlusion, Hypoperfusion, or Hemorrhage
      Contents note continued: Infarction Can Occur in the Middle Cerebral Artery Territory
      Infarction Can Occur in the Anterior Cerebral Artery Territory
      Infarction Can Occur in the Posterior Cerebral Artery Territory
      Anterior Choroidal and Penetrating Arteries Can Become Occluded
      Carotid Artery Can Become Occluded
      Brain Stem and Cerebellum Are Supplied by Branches of the Vertebral and Basilar Arteries
      Infarcts Affecting Predominantly Medial or Lateral Brain Stem Structures Produce Characteristic Syndromes
      Infarction Can Be Restricted to the Cerebellum
      Infarction Can Affect the Spinal Cord
      Diffuse Hypoperfusion Can Cause Ischemia or Infarction
      Cerebrovascular Disease Can Cause Dementia
      Rupture of Microaneurysms Causes Intraparenchymal Stroke
      Rupture of Saccular Aneurysms Causes Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
      Stroke Alters the Vascular Physiology of the Brain
      Selected Readings
      D. Blood-Brain Barrier, Choroid Plexus, and Cerebrospinal Fluid / Gary W. Goldstein
      Blood-Brain Barrier Regulates the Interstitial Fluid in the Brain
      Distinctive Properties of the Endothelial Cells of Brain Capillaries Account for the Blood-Brain Barrier
      Tight Junctions Arc a Major Feature of the Anatomical Blood-Brain Barrier Composition and Structure
      Blood-Brain Barrier Is Permeable in Three Ways
      Endothelial Enzyme Systems Form a Metabolic Blood-Brain Barrier
      Some Areas of the Brain Lack a Blood-Brain Barrier
      Brain-Derived Signals Induce Endothelial Cells to Express a Blood-Brain Barrier
      Diseases Can Alter the Blood-Brain Barrier
      Cerebrospinal Fluid Is Secreted by the Choroid Plexuses
      Cerebrospinal Fluid Has Several Functions
      Epithelial Cells of the Choroid Plexuses Account for the Blood-Cerebral Spinal Fluid Barrier
      Choroid Plexuses Nurture the Developing Brain
      Increased Intracranial Pressure May Harm the Brain
      Brain Edema Is an Increase in Brain Volume Because of Increased Water Content
      Hydrocephalus Is an Increase in the Volume of the Cerebral Ventricles
      Selected Readings
      References
      E. Neural Networks / Rafael Yuste
      Early Neural Network Modeling
      Neurons Are Computational Devices
      Neuron Can Compute Conjunctions and Disjunctions
      Network of Neurons Can Compute Any Boolean Logical Function
      Perceptrons Model Sequential and Parallel Computation in the Visual System
      Simple and Complex Cells Could Compute Conjunctions and Disjunctions
      Primary Visual Cortex Has Been Modeled As a Multilayer Perceptron
      Selectivity and Invariance Must Be Explained by Any Model of Vision
      Visual Object Recognition Could Be Accomplished by Iteration of Conjunctions and Disjunctions
      Associative Memory Networks Use Hebbian Plasticity to Store and Recall Neural Activity Patterns
      Hebbian Plasticity May Store Activity Patterns by Creating Cell Assemblies
      Cell Assemblies Can Complete Activity Patterns
      Cell Assemblies Can Maintain Persistent Activity Patterns
      Interference Between Memories Limits Capacity
      Synaptic Loops Can Lead to Multiple Stable States
      Symmetric Networks Minimize Energy-Like Functions
      Hebbian Plasticity May Create Sequential Synaptic Pathways
      Overall View
      Selected Readings
      References
      F. Theoretical Approaches to Neuroscience: Examples from Single Neurons to Networks / Kenneth D. Miller
      Single-Neuron Models Allow Study of the Integration of Synaptic Inputs and Intrinsic Conductances
      Neurons Show Sharp Threshold Sensitivity to the Number and Synchrony of Synaptic Inputs in Quiet Conditions Resembling In Vivo
      Neurons Show Graded Sensitivity to the Number and Synchrony of Synaptic Inputs in Noisy Conditions Resembling In Vitro
      Neuronal Messages Depend on Intrinsic Activity and Extrinsic Signals
      Network Models Provide Insight into the Collective Dynamics of Neurons
      Balanced Networks of Active Neurons Can Generate the Ongoing Noisy Activity Seen In Vivo
      Feed-forward and Recurrent Networks Can Amplify or Integrate Inputs with Distinct Dynamics
      Balanced Recurrent Networks Can Behave Like Feed-forward Networks
      Paradoxical Effects in Balanced Recurrent Networks May Underlie Surround Suppression in the Visual Cortex
      Recurrent Networks Can Model Decision-Making
      Selected Reading
      References.
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